The Study of the Language and Techniques Used in the Academic British Parliamentary Debate文献综述

 2022-09-08 11:59:19

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指导教师签名：

The study of the language and techniques used

in the British Parliamentary debate

英国议会制辩论语言技巧分析

外国语学院 夏苏尚华 指导老师：陈军

Abstract

Debate is considered an art of words. British parliamentary debate is one of the often used forms for university-level students to train themselves. And in order to debate in a BP form competition, debaters not only need to be a good public speaker with great reasoning skills and strong logic but also need to be a proficient English learner. Since the very beginning, we have used all kinds of ways to analyze and study the debate language and try to put forward some equations to build a good debater, but few studies have been done which associated with linguistic analysis. Swales and his move analysis as a branch of genre analysis to identify and illustrate the rhetorical organization of particular texts, and he mainly applied the move-step analysis on the RAs. Many studies have proposed various move schema for the analysis of different genres such as book reviews, grant proposals, and job application letters, to mention only some examples. The framework of move analysis developed by Swales (1990) has been successfully extended to broader areas of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) instruction. But there is no one ever links those two areas and uses them to discuss the topic of academic debate language. And thus I am going to use lexical bundles to create specific lexical chunks and link them to the move-step as the construction stones of a good debate speech.

Key words: genre analysis, move-step, lexical bundles

中文摘要

辩论是语言的艺术表达。英国议会制辩论现在已经是大学阶段最适合学生锻炼口语和表达的一种学习方式。为了在英国议会制辩论中发挥自己，学生们不仅仅需要严密的逻辑，缜密的归纳能力，更加是考验着学生们的英语语言能力。从这项比赛一开始出现之后，很多学生和老师就在研究到底如何才能成为一个优秀的辩手，他们用了各种各样的理论和实践加以研究，但是他们很少从语言学本身出发，去研究辩论话语，去探讨单从辩论用词用句出发，该怎么训练。Swales创立了语步分析的理论来分析了学术文章中的话语，也有很多的学者利用他的分析技巧作为基础对于各种文体和语用范围的话语进行语步的分析。还有人把他的语步分析理论拓展到专门用途英语的理论进行研究，但至今没有人把这两个学术概念结合在一起从而对辩论话语进行语步分析。所以我将运用搜集到的语料建立自己的语块集合，然后把同一语步的语块进行归纳和整理形成自己的语料库。

关键词: 语步分析，话语分析，语块和语步

  1. Literature Review

1.1 Move analysis, ESP, lexical bundles.

1.1.1 Move analysis and ESP

Move analysis was developed by Swales (1981) as part of genre analysis in order to identify and illustrate the rhetorical organization of particular texts. Texts are described in terms of their communicative purposes, categorizing the discourse units that make up those texts according to these purposes or rhetorical moves. “A move thus refers to a section of a text that performs a specific communicative function”. In other words, a move is a stretch of written or spoken discourse, “which achieves a particular purpose within a text”. Moves are functional units in a text which, when working together, fulfill the overall communicative purpose of the genre. The general organization of a text can be described as consisting of a number of moves, with some conventional moves occurring more often than other moves which are optional. Swales (1990) explains that moves often contain multiple elements or steps that, when combined, realize the move. The function of these steps is to achieve the purpose of the move to which they belong.

As an example of a specific genre analysis, move analysis was developed as a “top-down” approach to give a generalizable description of discourse organization across a representative sample of texts of a particular genre. The framework of move analysis developed by Swales (1990) has been successfully extended to broader areas of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) instruction. This most frequently used tool of text-level analysis has stimulated interest in research on the generic structures of such specific genres as academic, professional, and other discourse types. Academic genres have been examined through the lens of move analysis, such as research article abstracts and textbooks. Meanwhile, it has been applied to a variety of professional communication discourses, including sales letters, brief tourist information texts, SARS case reports, etc. Such distinctive genres as birthmother letters and advertisements for academic posts have also been studied by adopting move analysis methodology.

Discourse analysis of debate has not yet been discussed very often. My former researchers have focus more on the speech acts or semantics or pragmatics linguistic features. In the Speech Act Conditions as Tool for Reconstructing Argumentative Discourse, Frans and Rob use the pragma-dialectical approach to argumentation, for analyzing argumentative discourse, a normative reconstruction is required which encompasses four kinds of transformations. They explained how speech act conditions can play a part in carrying out such a reconstruction.

Researchers in the field of ESP understand genre as a collection of communicative events sharing a set of communicative purposes, taken by the members of a specific discourse community. They made use of genre as an instrument for analyzing and teaching the spoken and written language required of nonnative speakers in academic and professional settings. Swalesrsquo; analysis (1990) of the discourse rhetorical structure of research article introductions shaped the genre theory in the teaching of ESP. By employing the notions of move and step, ESP scholars described the discourse structure of texts and related discourse structures to communicative purposes the genres in question served. Structures were interpreted in terms of the socio-cognitive patterns that most members of a discourse community use to construct and interpret discourses specific to their cultural and institutional norms. Genre is a formal property of texts, and this attribute enables them to be described as a sequence of segments, or “moves”, each of which represents a stretch of text shaped and constrained by a particular communicative (semantic) function and contributes in some way to serving the more global and general communicative purpose of the genre as a whole. As a key concept in genre analysis, move is a discourse unit used in research describing the generic structure of a genre. Made up of a bundle of linguistic features, a move has a uniform orientation and signals the content of discourse through lexical meanings, prepositional meanings, or illocutionary forces, etc. Each move embodies a series of constituent components, which combine to contain information in the move. These discourse segments subordinate to move are referred to as “steps” by Swales (1990) to analyze how the writer or speaker chooses to realize or execute the move. Bhatia (1993) set out that moves are discriminative elements of generic organization and steps are non-discriminative options within the allowable contributions available to an addresser for creative or innovative genre constructing. The characteristics of moves need to be noted. Moves in a genre show great variation in terms of their internal structure, length, and connections with other moves. Some moves and steps in a genre are more common or obligatory, whereas others are optional. Some of these moves and/or steps make up nuclear categories, while others fulfill a satellite communicative function. This suggests that the obligatory elements are inevitably constitutive of this genre and the appearance of all these elements in a particular sequence corresponds to the perception of whether the text is complete or incomplete, while others are optional. According to Parodi (2010), in most genres each move is closely connected to the previous and subsequent ones and different types of links are built from one thematic nucleus to the next. What can also be found is that some move types and constituent steps have a recursive nature. This is to say that they can occur more than once in cyclical pattern in a section of text. Moreover, moves can be embedded into another move type very occasionally. The cyclical fashion and the embedding phenomenon tend to occur mainly in genres with less constraints and more freedom than the stylized ones.

1.1.2 Lexical bundles

Due to the advancements in computers and their use in the analysis of language corpora, there has been a strong shift in the study of formulaic expressions in the last two decades. In the past, the study of formulaic language was performed intuitively, with researchers making up lists of fixed expressions that they perceived as occurring frequently in the language. For example, Pawley and Syder (1983), in their seminal article on the importance of formulaic language to non-native speakers of English, explained that “A few minutesrsquo; reflection produced the following sample of clauses that are familiar to the writers as habitually spoken sequences in Australian and New Zealand English.” The explanation of the authorsrsquo; methodology to identify habitual expressions was followed by a long list of short and long expressions such as Need any help? Would you like some more? You shouldnrsquo;t have said that, and Yoursquo;ve hurt his feelings, which these authors perceived as frequent formulaic expressions in that geographical register. Lately, studies have favored more empirically-based research methods to identify recurrent expressions in particular registers. Advancements in corpus-based analysis make it possible to empirically identify fixed expressions that recur frequently in the language. These longer expressions, as well as two-word collocations, have often been researched within two traditions: the frequency-based tradition, which emphasizes the frequency of their co-occurrence, and the phraseological tradition, which focuses both on the grade of fixedness that these word combinations hold and on different ways to classify these expressions. Within the frequency-based tradition, some studies have reviewed the literature on formulaic expressions and checked their frequency in a corpus. Other studies have used a strict frequency-driven approach to identify this type of expressions. Using this frequency-driven methodology, Biber et al. (1999) coined the term lexical bundles to label “the most frequently occurring sequences of words” in a language or register. Lexical bundles are identified using special software on a large corpus of language. These expressions are groups of three or more words that frequently recur in a language or in a particular register and meet arbitrarily-established cut-off points for frequency and range. For example, Biber et al. (1999) proposed a cut-off point of ten times per million words fora four-word expression to be considered a bundle. In addition, those expressions had to appear in five or more texts in the corpus under analysis, to avoid usersrsquo; idiosyncrasies. Succeeding studies have been more conservative and established higher cut-off points to ensure that these expressions are really frequent in a particular register with frequency cut-off points set at 20 or 40 occurrences per million words. As previously introduced, frequent lexical bundles in academic writing are expressions such as a result of, in the case of, and on the other hand, among many others. Lexical bundles have been studied in a wide variety of registers such as everyday conversation; research articles; university textbooks and lectures, doctoral dissertations and Masterrsquo;s theses, and English EU documents. These studies tried to discover tendencies in the use of this type of formulaic expressions in different types of texts and some of these investigations introduced different taxonomies to classify these expressions structurally and functionally.

1.1.3 Lexical bundles and moves as building blocks

The identification of lexical items and lexical and grammatical patterns used to signal the onset of rhetorical moves has always been a topic of interest for researchers studying discourse organization. Swales (1981) already identified some lexical items as key markers for moves. For example, he stated that when asserting centrality, a function often expressed in the first move of introductions, authors use expressions that reflect that the issues to be discussed in those articles raise questions of interest using words that denote interest or importance. A wide variety of expressions have often been intuitively identified as frequently initiating or defining a move. That is the case of expressions such as it is the purpose of this paper, or the aim of this investigation, which have been found to introduce the arrival of Move 3 (introducing the present work). Most of these expressions resulted from the analysis of a reduced number of texts or have been perceived as frequently used by authors to convey that communicative function. Identifying lexical bundles in the rhetorical moves of RA introductions would empirically demonstrate which expressions are frequently used to initiate rhetorical moves in this section of RAs. There is another important concept that brings lexical bundles and rhetorical moves together. Each of these linguistic features has been considered building blocks to be used in the construction of discourse. Lexical bundles have been defined as recurrent expressions that can be retrieved from our memory to be used as “text building blocks” (. Hylandalso maintains that bundles have been increasingly seen as “important building blocks of coherent discourse and characteristic features of language use in particular settings”. In a similar way, rhetorical moves have also been considered building blocks. Biber, Connor, and Upton explain that move types can be seen as the “main building blocks” of a genre. Dudley-Evans considered rhetorical moves such an inherent part of a genre that they could be used to teach novice writers how to produce successful texts in that particular genre.

It seems both lexical bundles and moves show similar characteristics: while lexical bundles are seen as lexico-grammatical building blocks associated with basic functions used to bind the text together, rhetorical moves are seen as “segments of discourse that provide the building blocks of texts”. A description of the relationship between lexical bundles and moves in a particular register could provide more evidence towards a complete picture of the tendencies used in the organizational and lexico-grammatical patterns used to build discourse by different speech communities. There is undoubtedly a need to further investigate the relationship between these two types of building blocks in different registers.

1.2 Research Purpose

The objective of this article is to present a study that started identifying lexical bundles in debate speeches to later analyze the relationship between those bundles and the moves and steps that comprise the organization of these sections. By definition, lexical bundles are combinations of three or more words that frequently occur in a language or a given register. It is necessary to mention that frequency is the ultimate characteristic that defines lexical bundles. In addition, several studies have analyzed the functions of lexical bundles explaining that these expressions perform three main functions: stance, discourse organizing, and referential functions, with several subcategories for each of these.

The aim of the study reported here was to identify the most frequent lexical bundles in a corpus of BP debate, then collect them to form a chunks in order to facilitate the future learning.

Chapter Two BP debate form

2.1 British Parliamentary debate in real life

2.2 Academic British Parliamentary debate

2.2.1 Role of each debater

Chapter Three Move analysis of the debate speech (case studying)

3.1 Prime ministerrsquo;s speech

3.2 Leader of opposition

3.3 DPM/DLO

3.4 MG/MO

3.5GW/OW

Chapter Four Lexical bundles and moves

Conclusion

Notes

Bibliography

查阅中外文献资料目录

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[4] Jan Zienkowski, Jan-Ola Ostman and Jef Verschueren．Discursive Pragmatics[M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2014

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[7]李悦娥, 范宏雅. 话语分析[M] 上海外语教育出版社, 2013.

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[15]Yule, G. The Study of Language[M]. Cambridge University Press,1996.

资料编号：[285400]


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